Programming in C – Overview
Brief History of C The C programming language is a structure oriented programming language, developed at Bell Laboratories in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie. C programming Read More »
Programming in C – Structure Of a C Program
The structure of a C program is a protocol (rules) to the programmer, which he has to follow while writing a C program. The general Read More »
Programming in C – Files Used In a C Program
Source File- This file contains the source code of the program. The file extension of any c file is .c. The file contains C source Read More »
Programming in C – Elements
Every language has some basic elements & grammatical rules. Before starting with programming, we should be acquainted with the basic elements that build the language. Read More »
Programming in C – Variables
Variables are names that are used to store values. It can take different values but one at a time. A data type is associated with Read More »
Programming in C – Input Output
When we are saying Input that means we feed some data into program. This can be given in the form of file or from command Read More »
Programming in C – Formatted Input Output
Data can be entered & displayed in a particular format. Through format specifications, better presentation of results can be obtained Variations in Output for integer Read More »
Programming in C – Operators
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or logical manipulations. C language is rich in built-in operators and provides Read More »
Programming in C – Increment And Decrement Operator
In C, ++ and – are called increment and decrement operators respectively. Both of these operators are unary operators, i.e, used on single operand. ++ Read More »
Programming in C – Operators Precedence in C
Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression. This affects how an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher precedence than others; for Read More »
Programming in C – Control Statements
In C, programs are executed sequentially in the order of which they appear. This condition does not hold true always. Sometimes a situation may arise Read More »
Programming in C – Iterative Statements
while statement The while statement is used when the program needs to perform repetitive tasks. The general form of a while statement is: while ( Read More »
Programming in C – Jump Statements
The break Statement The break statement provides an early exit from for, while, and do, just as from switch. A break causes the innermost enclosing Read More »
Programming in C – Function
MONOLITHIC VS MODULAR PROGRAMMING: Monolithic Programming indicates the program which contains a single function for the large program. Modular programming help the programmer to divide Read More »
Programming in C – Function Categories
There are four main categories of the functions these are as follows: 1. Function with no arguments and no return values. 2. Function with no Read More »
Programming in C – Actual Arguments And Formal Arguments
Actual Arguments: 1. Arguments which are mentioned in the function in the function call are known as calling function. 2. These are the values which Read More »
Programming in C – Recursion
Recursion is a process in which a problem is defined in terms of itself. In ‘C’ it is possible to call a function from itself. Functions Read More »
Programming in C – Recursion Verses Iteration
Every repetitive problem can be implemented recursively or iteratively Recursion should be used when the problem is recursive in nature. Iteration should be used when the problem Read More »
Programming in C – Storage Classes
To completely define a variable one needs to mention its type along with its storage class. In other words we can say not only variables have Read More »
Programming in C – Arrays
Introduction A data structure is the way data is stored in the machine and the functions used to access that data. An easy way to Read More »
Programming in C – Two Dimensional Arrays
Arrays that we have considered up to now are one dimensional array, a single line of elements. Often data come naturally in the form of Read More »
Programming in C – Arrays Using Functions
1-d arrays using functions Passing individual array elements to a function We can pass individual array elements as arguments to a function like other simple variables. Read More »
Programming in C – Fundamentals Of Strings
A string is a series of characters treated as a single unit. A string may include letters, digits and various special characters such as +, -, Read More »
Programming in C – Common Functions In String
strcpy(): It is used to copy one string to another string. The content of the second string is copied to the content of the first string. Read More »
Programming in C – Structure And Union
Definition A Structure is a user defined data type that can store related information together. The variable within a structure are of different data types and Read More »
Programming in C – Nested Structures
The structure that contains another structure as its members is called a nested structure or a structure within a structure is called nested structure. The structure Read More »
Programming in C – Union
Union is a collection of variables of different data types, in case of union information can only be stored In one field at any one time. Read More »
Programming in C – Pointers
A pointer is a variable that contains the address of a variable. Pointers are much used in C, partly because they are sometimes the only way Read More »
Programming in C – Pointers and Arrays
In C, there is a strong relationship between pointers and arrays, strong enough that pointers and arrays should be discussed simultaneously. Any operation that can be Read More »
Programming in C – Address Arithmetic
If p is a pointer to some element of an array, then p++ increments p to point to the next element, and p+=i increments it to Read More »
Programming in C – Pointers to Functions
How to declare a pointer to a function? Syntax: returntype_of_function (*pointer variable)(List of arguments); For example: int (*p)(int,int); can be interpreted as p is a pointer Read More »
Programming in C – Dynamic Memory Allocation
The memory allocation that we have done till now was static memory allocation.. So the memory that could be used by the program was fixed. Read More »
Programming in C – Pointer To Structures
You may recall that the name of an array stands for the address of its zero-th element. Also true for the names of arrays of structure Read More »
Programming in C – File
A File is a collection of data stored on a secondary storage device like hard disk. File operation is to combine all the input data into Read More »
Digital Electronics – Applications and advantages of digital systems
A digital system is a combination of devices designed to manipulate logical information or physical quantities that are represented in digital form; that is, the Read More »
Digital Electronics – Number System (Binary And Hexadecimal)
Why Binary? The number system that you are familiar with, that you use every day, is the decimal number system, also commonly referred to as Read More »
Digital Electronics – Logic Gates
BOOLEAN CONSTANTS AND VARIABLES Boolean algebra differs in a major way from ordinary algebra because Boolean constants and variables are allowed to have only two Read More »
Microprocessor – Personal computers and their typical uses
The two principal characteristics of a computer are: It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner. It can execute a prerecorded Read More »
Microprocessor – Typical Organisation Of A Microcomputer System
Microcomputer Organization: The basic components of a microcomputer are: 1) CPU 2) Program memory 3) Data memory 4) Output ports 5) Input ports 6) Clock Read More »
Microprocessor – Brief idea of Machine & Assembly Languages
FUNDAMENTALS OF PROGRAMMING: A microprocessor is an integrated circuit that serves as the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer. It is a programmable device Read More »
Microprocessor – Memories and IO Interfacing
IO Interfacing INPUT/OUTPUT Techniques In all process content applications, Microprocessor would like to communicate with different I/O devices for data transfers is transfer of data between Read More »
Microprocessor – Instruction Format And Addressing Mode
INSTRUCTION FORMAT: All instruction of 8085 are 1 to 3 bytes in length .the bit pattern of the first cycle is the op code. The Read More »
Microprocessor – Concept Of Instruction Set
An instruction set is a group of commands for a CPU in machine language. The term can refer to all possible instructions for a CPU Read More »
Microprocessor – Concept Of Interrupt
8085 interrupt structure There are five interrupt input TRAP,RST 75,SRT 65,RST 55 and IWTR. TRAP is a nonmaskable interrupt, that is, it cannot be disabled by an Read More »
Microprocessor – Data transfer techniques – Sync data transfer, async data transfer
Synchronous data transfer Synchronous means “at the same time”.The device which sends data and the device which receives data are synchronized with the same clock.When Read More »
Microprocessor – Interrupt Driven Data Transfer
INTERRUPT I/O TRANSFER This is a device initiated Microprocessor controlled I/O transfer. A Microprocessor may be communicating other time. In the case of CPU initiated Read More »
Microprocessor – DMA(Direct Memory Access)
DMA D.M.A stands for direct memory access.D.M.A is also referred to as hardware controlled I/O, D.M.A is the only type of I/O transfer in which Read More »
Microprocessor – Serial IO (Serial Output Data,Serial Input Data)
Serial Input / Output data using 8085 8085 Microprocessor has two Serial Input/Output pins that are used to read/write one bit data to and from Read More »
Computer Organization and Architecture – Fundamentals
Computer Organization and Architecture Computer technology has made incredible improvement in the past half century. In the early part of computer evolution, there were no Read More »
Computer Organization and Architecture – Processor Design
Overview of CPU Design The operation or task that must perform by CPU are: Fetch Instruction: The CPU reads an instruction from memory. Interpret Instruction: Read More »
Computer Organization and Architecture – Control Unit Design
To execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU must generate the required control signal in the proper sequence. As for example, during the Read More »
Computer Organization and Architecture – Memory Organisation
Concept of Memory We have already mentioned that digital computer works on stored programmed concept introduced by Von Neumann. We use memory to store the Read More »
Computer Organization and Architecture – I/O system organisation
Input/Output Organization The computer system’s input/output (I/O) architecture is its interface to the outside world. Till now we have discussed the two important modules of Read More »
Digital Electronics – Universal Property Of NAND And NOR Gates
1- The NAND Gate as a Universal Logic Element The NAND gate is a universal gate because it can be used to produce the NOT, Read More »
Data structure – Overview
What is mean by data structure ? Lets have brief introduction about data structure, Lets us takes an example ,in our room we have different Read More »
Data Structure – Algorithms
What is An Algorithm? An algorithm is a sequence of unambiguous instructions which can be used to solve the problem . In addition every algorithm Read More »
Data Structure – Overview of Recursion
Overview of Recursion: A function must be able to call itself. For example, let us consider the function factr() shown below, which computers the factorial Read More »
Data Structure – Differences between recursion and iteration
Differences between recursion and iteration: Both involve repetition. Both involve a termination test. Both can occur infinitely. You may be interested in: Data Structures Read More »
Digital Electronics – Logic Simplifications
Boolean Addition In Boolean algebra, a sum term is a sum of literals. In logic circuits, a sum term is produced by an OR operation with Read More »
Data Structure – Algorithm Asymptotic Analysis
in The Previous Post We have Learned What is algorithm? In Computer Science we have some problem which we have to solve, but before writing Read More »
Data Structure – Basic Concepts of Complexity Classes – P-NP-NP-HARD-NP-Complete
In This section lets understand the Basic concept of NP Hard & NP Complete Algorithm NP-Hard and NP-Complete Problems An algorithm A is of polynomial Read More »
Data Structure – Linked Lists
In this Post, the list data structure is presented. This structure can be used as the basis for the implementation of other data structures (stacks, Read More »
Digital Electronics – Codes and Parity
Overview In digital electronics, codes are used to represent information in a binary format. Parity is a technique used to detect errors in data transmission Read More »
Data Structure – Linked List Concepts
Linked List Concepts A linked list is a non-sequential collection of data items. It is a dynamic data structure. For every data item in a Read More »
Digital Electronics – Arithmetic Circuits
Arithmetic circuits are digital circuits designed to perform arithmetic operations on binary numbers. They are an essential component of digital systems, such as microprocessors, calculators, Read More »
Microprocessor – 8085 Microprocessor
The salient features of 8085 µp are: • It is a 8 bit microprocessor. • It is manufactured with N-MOS technology. • It has 16-bit Read More »
8086 Microprocessor – Internal Architecture of 8086
Overview of the main components The internal architecture of the 8086 microprocessor consists of various components that work together to execute instructions and process data. Read More »
Digital Electronics – Decoders-Encoders
Decoders and encoders are fundamental digital circuits used in digital electronics. They are designed to convert between different representations of data, such as binary codes, Read More »
Digital Electronics – Multiplexers and De-multiplexers
Multiplexers A multiplexer or MUX, also called a data selector, is a combinational circuit with more than one input line, one output line and more Read More »
Digital Electronics – Latches and Flipflops
FLIPFLOPS The basic 1-bit digital memory circuit is known as a flip-flop. It can have only two states, either the 1 state or the 0 Read More »
Computer Organization and Architecture – Arithmetic and logic Unit (ALU)
Arithmetic and logic Unit (ALU) ALU is responsible to perform the operation in the computer. The basic operations are implemented in hardware level. ALU is Read More »
Data Structure – Single Linked List In Brief
Single Linked List In Brief: A linked list allocates space for each element separately in its own block of memory called a “node”. The list Read More »
Computer Organization and Architecture – Memory Management
Main Memory The main working principle of digital computer is Von-Neumann stored program principle. First of all we have to keep all the information in Read More »
Computer Organization and Architecture – Virtual Memory
Paging Both unequal fixed size and variable size partitions are inefficient in the use of memory. It has been observed that both schemes lead to Read More »
Computer Organization and Architecture – Execution of a Complete Instructions
Execution of a Complete Instructions: We have discussed about four different types of basic operations: Fetch information from memory to CPU Store information to CPU Read More »
Digital Electronics – Counters
Counting is frequently required in digital computers and other digital systems to record the number of events occurring in a specified interval of time. Normally Read More »
Data Structure – Array based linked lists
Another alternative is to allocate the nodes in blocks. In fact, if you know the maximum size of a list a head of time, you Read More »
Digital Electronics – Shift Register
REGISTERS A register is a group of binary storage cells capable of holding binary information. A group of flip-flops constitutes a register, since each flip-flop can Read More »
Data Structure – Double Linked List
A double linked list is a two-way list in which all nodes will have two links. This helps in accessing both successor node and predecessor Read More »
Digital Electronics – Memories
READ-ONLY MEMORY (ROM) A read-only memory (ROM) is a device that includes both the decoder and the OR gates within a single IC package. The connections Read More »
Operating Systems – Introduction
General Definition of Operating Systems An OS is a program which acts as an interface between computer system users and the computer hardware. It provides Read More »
Operating Systems – History
Operating System History It all started with computer hardware in about 1945s. Computers were using vacuum tube technology. Programs were loaded into memory manually using switches, Read More »
Operating Systems – Basic Concept of Processor Bound Program,I/O Bound Program
Overview: A process is an executing program, including the current values of the program counter, registers, and variables.The subtle difference between a process and a Read More »
Operating Systems – Process States
Process States Overview: we have already read the concept of process ,not let us see what it is process states, please check the below figure Read More »
Operating Systems – Process Scheduler
What is Scheduler in Operating System ? If we consider batch systems, there will often be more processes submitted than the number of processes that can Read More »
Operating Systems – Performance Criteria
In order to achieve an efficient processor management, OS tries to select the most appropriate process from the ready queue. For selection, the relative importance of Read More »
Operating Systems – Processor Scheduling algorithms
Now, let’s discuss some processor scheduling algorithms again stating that the goal is to select the most appropriate process in the ready queue. For the Read More »
Operating Systems – Memory Management Fixed Partitioning,Variable Partitioning
In a multi-programming system, in order to share the processor, a number of processes must be kept in memory. Memory management is achieved through memory management algorithms. Read More »
Operating System – Memory Management – Paging
Why Paging is Required ? Paging permits a program to allocate noncontiguous blocks of memory. The OS divide programs into pages which are blocks of small Read More »
Operating System – How to Implement The Page Table
Every access to memory should go through the page table. Therefore, it must be implemented in an efficient way. a. Using fast dedicated registers Keep page Read More »
Operating System – Memory Management-Segmentation
Concept Of Segmentation in Operating System In segmentation, programs are divided into variable size segments, instead of fixed size pages. Every logical address is formed of Read More »
Operating System – Virtual Memory-Demand Paging
Lets Discuss Virtual Memory Over here ,All the memory management policies we have discussed so far, try to keep a number of processes in the memory Read More »
Operating System – Performance Calculation of Demand Paging System
If there is no page fault, effective access time is effective memory acces time is eatNO-PF = emat If there is a page fault, we Read More »
Operating System – Dirty bit
Why Dirty Bit? What is Dirty Bit? In order to reduce the page fault service time, a special bit called the dirty bit can be associated Read More »
Operating System – Page Replacement Algorithms
A page replacement algorithm determines how the victim page (the page to be replaced) is selected when a page fault occurs. The aim is to minimize Read More »
Operating System – Deadlocks
Deadlocks Definition: In a multiprogramming system, processes request resources. If those resources are being used by other processes then the process enters a waiting state. However, Read More »
Operating System – Resource Allocation Graphs
Resource allocation graphs are drawn in order to see the allocation relations of processes and resources easily. In these graphs, processes are represented by circles Read More »
Data Structure – Circular Single Linked List
Concept: It is just a single linked list in which the link field of the last node points back to the address of the first Read More »
Operating System – Deadlock Prevention
Deadlock Prevention:To prevent the system from deadlocks, one of the four discussed conditions that may create a deadlock should be discarded. The methods for those conditions Read More »
Operating System – Deadlock avoidance
Given some additional information on how each process will request resources, it is possible to construct an algorithm that will avoid deadlock states. The algorithm will Read More »
Operating System – Banker’s Algorithm (Dijkstra and Habermann)
Banker’s Algorithm (Dijkstra and Habermann):It is a deadlock avoidance algorithm. The following data structures are used in the algorithm: m = number of resources n Read More »
Operating System – Deadlock Detection Algorithm
If a system has no deadlock prevention and no deadlock avoidance scheme, then it needs a deadlock detection scheme with recovery from deadlock capability. For this, Read More »
Operating System – Recovery From Deadlock
If the system is in a deadlock state, some methods for recovering it from the deadlock state must be applied. There are various ways for recovery: Read More »
Operating System – Interprocess Communication
Processes frequently need to communicate with other processes. For example, in a shell pipeline, the output of the first process must be passed to the second Read More »
Operating System – Critical Section Problem
The problem of avoiding race conditions can also be formulated in an abstract way. Part of the time, a process is busy doing internal computations Read More »
Operating System – Disabling Interrupts-Lock Variables-Strict Alternation
Disabling Interrupts The simplest solution is to have each process disable all interrupts just after entering its CS and re-enable them just before leaving it. Read More »
Operating System – Peterson’s Solution
By combining the idea of taking turns with the idea of lock variables and warning variables, in 1965, a Dutch mathematician, T. Dekker, was the Read More »
Operating System – Semaphores
E. W. Dijkstra suggested using an integer variable for IPC problems. In his proposal, a new variable type, called a semaphore, was introduced. Dijkstra proposed having Read More »
Operating System – Classical IPC Problems
Besides its usage for CS problem, semaphores can also be used for synchronization of the processes. For example consider two concurrent processes: p1, p2. We require Read More »
Digital Electronics – A/D and D/A converters
What is ADC ? An electronic integrated circuit which transforms a signal from analog (continuous) to digital (discrete) form. Analog signals are directly measurable quantities. Digital Read More »
Operating System – The Bounded Buffer (Producer-Consumer) Problem
Assume there are n slots capable of holding one item. Process producer will produce items to fill slots and process consumer will consume the items in Read More »
Operating System – The Readers and Writers Problem
Imagine a big database, such as an airline reservation system, with many competing processes wishing to read and write. It is acceptable to have multiple processes Read More »
Operating System – The Dining Philosophers Problem
There are N philosophers spending their lives thinking and eating in a room. In their round table there is a plate of infinite rice and N Read More »
Operating System – The Sleeping Barber Problem
The barber shop has one barber, one barber chair, and N chairs for waiting customers, if any, to sit in. If there is no customer at Read More »
Digital Electronics – Sequential Logic Circuits
Sequential Logic Circuits Till now we studied the logic circuits whose outputs at any instant of time depend only on the input signals present at that Read More »
Programming in C++ – Introduction
Starting with C++ How C++ evolved from C? The history of C++ begins with C. C++ is built upon the foundation of C. Thus, C++ Read More »
Programming in C++ – Procedure Oriented Programming Vs OOP(Object Oriented Programming)
In the procedure oriented approach, the problem is viewed as the sequence of things to be done such as reading, calculating and printing such as Read More »
Programming in C++ – An Example of C++ Program
Here is an example of a complete C++ program: // The C++ compiler ignores comments which start with // double slashes like this, up to the Read More »
Programming in C++ – Basic Data Types
Built-in-type 1) Integral type : – The data types in this type are int and char. The modifiers signed, unsigned, long & short may be applied Read More »
Programming in C++ – Variables
Declaration of variables. C requires all the variables to be defined at the beginning of a scope. But c++ allows the declaration of variable anywhere Read More »
Programming in C++ – Operators
Assignment (=): The assignment operator assigns a value to a variable.a=5; This statement assigns the integer value 5 to the variable a. The part at Read More »
Programming in C++ – Control Statements
IF – ELSE STATEMENT The complete form of the if statement is if(expression) statement else statement where the targets of the if and else are Read More »
Programming in C++ – Why OOP language?
Advantages of OOP languages are: (i) OOP introduces the concept of data hiding & data encapsulation, because of which user is exposed to minimal data, Read More »
Programming in C++ – Class Vs Structure
Class is a collective representation of a set of member variable and member function under one name. Structure is a collection of member variables and Read More »
Programming in C++ – Friend Function
It is a non-member function that can access the private members of the class to which it is declared as friend. According to OOP concept Read More »
Programming in C++ – Basic Object Oriented concept
What is class? Class is a collection of similar types of objects, where each class having similar properties and types. Ex: Bird, Animal Need of Read More »
Programming in C++ – Functions
Member functions: All the the declared functions and varibles are part of the class and hence members of the corresponding class. Those are declared and Read More »
Data Structure – Circular Double Linked List Concept in brief
Concept: A circular double linked list has both successor pointer and predecessor pointer in circular manner. The objective behind considering circular double linked list is Read More »
Programming in C++ – Static Members and Static Variables
Static members Class members which are declared as static are known as Static members. Always Static variable shares same memory location. Syntax: Static int a; Read More »
Programming in C++ – Inheritance
One of the best feature that OOP provides is inheritance, where a new class can be constructed from an existing class. The class which is Read More »
Programming in C++ – Polymorphism
Polymorphism Poly means many and morphism means form and this is a greek word. In OOP function overloading and operating are example of polymorphism. Polymorphism Read More »
Programming in C++ – Declaration and Definition of a Constructor
A constructor (having the same name as that of the class) is a member function which is automatically used to initialize the objects of the Read More »
Programming in C++ – Type Of Constructor
There are different type of constructors in C++ 1 Overloaded Constructors Besides performing the role of member data initialization, constructors are no different from other Read More »
Programming in C++ – Declaration and Definition of a Destructor
The syntax for declaring a destructor is : -name_of_the_class() { } So the name of the class and destructor is same but it is prefixed Read More »
Programming in C++ – Declaration And Definition Of Overloading
class to which it (the operator) is applied. The operator function helps us in doing so. The Syntax of declaration of an Operator function is as Read More »
Programming in C++ – Stream and Stream Classes
C++ supports two complete I/O systems: the one inherited from C and the object oriented I/O system defined by C++ (hereafter called simply the C++ I/O Read More »
Programming in C++ – put() and get() functions
The classes istream and ostream define two member functions get(),put() respectively to handle the single character input/output operations. There are two types of get() functions.Both get(char Read More »
Programming in C++ – getline() and write() functions
A line of text can be read or display effectively using the line oriented input/output functions getline() and write(). The getline() function reads a whole Read More »
Programming in C++ – File stream classes
When a large amount of data is to be handled in such situations floppy disk or hard disk are needed to store the data .The data Read More »
Programming in C++ – Opening Files using Constructor
While using constructor for opening files,filename is used to initialize the file stream object. This involves the following steps Create a file stream object to Read More »
Programming in C++ – Opening Files using open()
The function open() can be used to open multiple files that uses the same stream object. For example to process a set of files sequentially,in such Read More »
Digital Electronics – S-R (Set-Reset) Flip-flop
An S-R flip-flop has two inputs named Set (S) and Reset (R), and two outputs Q and Q’. The outputs are complement of each other, i.e., Read More »
Data Structure – Comparison of Linked List Variations
The major disadvantage of doubly linked lists (over singly linked lists) is that they require more space (every node has two pointer fields instead of Read More »
Digital Electronics – Clocked S-R Flip-Flop
Generally, synchronous circuits change their states only when clock pulses are present. The operation of the basic flip-flop can be modified by including an additional Read More »
Data Structure – Stack Overview
Data structure Stack:There are certain situations in computer science that one wants to restrict insertions and deletions so that they can take place only at Read More »
Data Structure – Algebraic Expressions InFix PostFix Prefix Expressions
An algebraic expression is a legal combination of operators and operands. Operand is the quantity on which a mathematical operation is performed. Operand may be Read More »
Digital Electronics – Concept of Combinational Logic
Combinational logic refers to a type of digital logic circuit in which the output depends solely on the current inputs. It doesn’t have any memory Read More »
Data Structure – Queue Overview
A queue is another special kind of list, where items are inserted at one end called the rear and deleted at the other end called Read More »
Data Structure – Circular Queue
A more efficient queue representation is obtained by regarding the array Q[MAX] as circular. Any number of items could be placed on the queue. This Read More »
Data Structure – Deque Overview
In the preceding section we saw that a queue in which we insert items at one end and from which we remove items at the Read More »