Data Communication and Networking MCQs Set-3

To clarify, multi-path routing can be achieved in both distance-vector and link-state routing protocols. Let's take a closer look at each type:

1. Distance-Vector Routing Protocols:
   • Routing Information Protocol (RIP): RIP is a distance-vector protocol that traditionally supports only a single best path to a destination. However, some implementations of RIP, such as RIPng (RIP Next Generation), can support multiple paths by utilizing equal-cost multipath (ECMP) routing.
   • Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP): EIGRP is a hybrid routing protocol that incorporates distance-vector and link-state features. It supports unequal-cost load balancing, enabling the use of multiple paths with varying metrics.
2. Link-State Routing Protocols:
   • Open Shortest Path First (OSPF): OSPF is a widely used link-state routing protocol. It supports multi-path routing through the use of multiple equal-cost paths (ECMP) to a destination network. OSPF calculates shortest paths based on link-state information and can distribute traffic across these paths for load balancing purposes.
   • Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS): IS-IS is another link-state routing protocol that operates similarly to OSPF. It can calculate multiple equal-cost paths and achieve load balancing across them.

Both distance-vector and link-state routing protocols can be configured to utilize multi-path routing. Link-state protocols, such as OSPF and IS-IS, generally have built-in mechanisms to handle multiple paths and load balancing. On the other hand, distance-vector protocols like RIP and EIGRP may require specific configurations or extensions to enable multi-path routing capabilities, such as ECMP or unequal-cost load balancing.

RIP (Routing Information Protocol) and IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) are examples of distance vector routing protocols.

RIP (Routing Information Protocol) is a distance vector protocol commonly used in small to medium-sized networks. It uses hop count as the metric for determining the best path to a destination. RIP routers periodically exchange their routing tables with neighboring routers, and they maintain information about the number of hops required to reach each network. RIP has a maximum hop count limit of 15, which restricts its use in larger networks.

IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol) is also a distance vector protocol developed by Cisco Systems. It is an enhanced version of RIP and includes additional features such as support for multiple metrics (including bandwidth, delay, reliability, and load) to calculate the best path. IGRP is primarily used in older Cisco networks and has a maximum hop count limit of 100.

Both RIP and IGRP have slower convergence times compared to newer routing protocols like OSPF (Open Shortest Path First) or EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol). However, they are still used in certain network environments where simplicity and ease of configuration are more important than rapid convergence or scalability.

In data communication, the term "PPP" stands for "Point-to-Point Protocol." PPP is a communication protocol commonly used to establish a direct connection between two network nodes over a serial interface, such as a dial-up modem, DSL modem, or dedicated leased line. It provides a means to encapsulate and transmit network-layer protocols, such as IP (Internet Protocol), over the serial link. PPP supports various authentication methods, error detection, and data compression, making it a versatile protocol for establishing and maintaining reliable point-to-point connections.

The frequency range of wireless LAN (Local Area Network) can vary depending on the specific Wi-Fi standard being used. The most commonly used frequency ranges for Wi-Fi networks are:

1. 2.4 GHz: This is the frequency range used by IEEE 802.11b, IEEE 802.11g, and IEEE 802.11n Wi-Fi standards. It spans from 2.400 GHz to 2.4835 GHz and is divided into multiple channels. The 2.4 GHz frequency range is widely adopted and supported by most Wi-Fi devices.

2. 5 GHz: This is the frequency range used by IEEE 802.11a, IEEE 802.11n, IEEE 802.11ac, and IEEE 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6) Wi-Fi standards. It operates in the frequency range of 5.150 GHz to 5.925 GHz and offers more available channels compared to the 2.4 GHz range. The 5 GHz range provides higher data rates and is less susceptible to interference.

It's important to note that different countries and regions have regulations regarding the specific frequency bands and channel allocations for Wi-Fi usage. The available frequency bands may also vary depending on local regulatory authorities.

There is also a 900 MHz band used for wireless LAN in some cases. However, it is less commonly used for Wi-Fi networks compared to the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands.

In the 900 MHz band, there are different frequency ranges allocated for wireless communication depending on the region or country. For example:

• In North America, the Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band includes the frequency range of 902 MHz to 928 MHz. It is used for various purposes, including some wireless LAN applications.
• In Europe, the 868 MHz band is allocated for short-range devices and can be used for specific wireless LAN applications.

It's worth noting that the 900 MHz band has some limitations compared to the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands. The available spectrum is narrower, which can result in lower data rates and potentially more susceptibility to interference. As a result, the use of the 900 MHz band for wireless LAN is not as widespread as the 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands.

The wireless network standard with a data rate of only 2 Mbps is IEEE 802.11b. It was one of the earliest Wi-Fi standards introduced in 1999. IEEE 802.11b operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency band and uses Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) modulation. The maximum data rate supported by IEEE 802.11b is 2 Mbps. While this standard provided a significant improvement over previous wireless technologies, it has been largely superseded by newer Wi-Fi standards that offer higher data rates and improved performance.

"Cellular mobile" and "cellular phone" are also popular names used to refer to the mobile devices that operate within the cellular network. These terms are commonly used interchangeably with "mobile phone" or "cell phone." Cellular mobile devices or cellular phones are portable devices that connect to the cellular network to make and receive calls, send text messages, access the internet, and perform various other communication and multimedia functions. They operate by utilizing radio signals to communicate with nearby cellular base stations or towers, allowing users to stay connected while on the go.

While mobile communication offers numerous advantages, there are also some disadvantages associated with it. Here are a few common disadvantages:

1. Limited Coverage: Mobile communication heavily relies on the availability of network coverage. In remote or rural areas, network coverage may be limited or nonexistent, resulting in poor or no connectivity.

2. Signal Interference: Mobile communication signals can be susceptible to interference from various sources, including physical obstacles, electromagnetic interference, and high network traffic. This interference can lead to dropped calls, reduced call quality, or slower data speeds.

3. Reliance on Infrastructure: Mobile communication requires a robust infrastructure of cell towers, base stations, and network equipment. In areas with inadequate infrastructure, the quality of service may suffer, leading to unreliable connections and lower data speeds.

4. Dependence on Battery Life: Mobile devices rely on battery power, and their usage can drain the battery quickly, especially when engaging in data-intensive activities or in areas with weak signal strength. Limited battery life can be a challenge, especially when access to charging facilities is limited.

5. Security and Privacy Risks: Mobile communication introduces potential security and privacy risks. Mobile devices can be vulnerable to malware, data breaches, and unauthorized access. Additionally, the use of public Wi-Fi networks or unsecured connections can expose sensitive information to potential threats.

6. Distractions and Safety Concerns: Mobile communication can be a distraction, particularly when used while driving or in situations that require attention and focus. This can lead to safety hazards and accidents. It is essential to use mobile devices responsibly and follow safety guidelines.

7. Health Concerns: Some studies have raised concerns about potential health effects associated with long-term exposure to radiofrequency (RF) radiation emitted by mobile devices. However, the scientific community has not reached a consensus on the extent of these risks.

It is important to note that many of these disadvantages can be mitigated or improved with advancements in technology, infrastructure development, and better user practices.

A repeater operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. The primary function of a repeater is to amplify and regenerate signals that have weakened over long distances. It receives a weak signal, cleans it up, and retransmits it to extend the reach of the network. A repeater does not perform any processing or make any decisions based on the data being transmitted; it simply boosts the signal to ensure it can travel further without degradation.

ETSI stands for the European Telecommunications Standards Institute. It is an independent, not-for-profit organization that develops globally applicable standards for information and communications technologies (ICT), including telecommunications, broadcasting, and related areas. ETSI is based in Sophia Antipolis, France, and was established in 1988. It collaborates with industry stakeholders, regulatory bodies, and other standards organizations to define and promote interoperable standards that drive innovation and enable the global adoption of ICT products and services. ETSI's standards cover a wide range of technologies, including mobile communications, fixed networks, Internet of Things (IoT), multimedia, cybersecurity, and more.

Yes, GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) is a second-generation (2G) mobile telecommunication standard. It was developed in the 1980s and became the most widely used 2G standard globally. GSM introduced digital voice communication, improved call quality, and offered data services such as text messaging (SMS).

The combination of TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) and FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) in GSM allowed for efficient use of the available frequency spectrum and enabled multiple simultaneous connections within a cell. GSM provided a significant leap in mobile communication technology compared to its predecessor, 1G analog systems.

GSM's success and widespread adoption laid the foundation for the evolution of mobile networks and subsequent generations, such as 3G (UMTS) and 4G (LTE), which offered enhanced data speeds and capabilities. However, as a 2G technology, GSM has been largely superseded by these later generations, which provide faster data rates and support more advanced features and applications.